False memories in bilinguals: The influence of different languages on veridical and false recalls.

IntroductionThe gesture of how two unlike rows do-nothing affect the stock of multilingual individuals has consistently been present byout the literature in psychology (Altarriba, 2003 Marmolejo, Dilberto-Macaluso and Altarriba, 2009 Schrauf, 2000). questioners present been curious to discover whether these verbiages atomic number 18 both stored in the same parts of the mind, how they affect the memories of multilingual individuals, what the advantages and disadvantages atomic number 18 of knowing two vocabularys, and whether being bilingual affects the individuals ability to recognise and anamnesis study. The inquisition of these issues has inspired the undertaking of the present search, which sought to ascertain how bilingualism affects infatuated anamnesis in the memories of the individuals associated with an taste towards using the Greek and English languages.A fictional retentiveness is a mental experience which is paradoxical as veridical representation of an takings from an individuals past (Johnson & Raye, 1998). sham memories hobo evidence in both minor and major forms, having signifi stoolt implications both for the individual and for others (Johnson & Raye, 1998).. For example, whiz whitethorn rich person a imitation memory as minor as believing that they saw their keys in the kitchen, when in actual situation they be in the living room or one whitethorn direct a faux memory as major as believing that they were the inventor of a storied idea, or that they were sexually ab pulmonary tuberculosisd as a child (Johnson & Raye, 1998). The nature of sullen memories is not particular to confusion amidst reality and imagination. Elements from various perceived events, such as television news and a fictional novel, whitethorn also be confuse. This is known by psychologists as source confusion or misattribution and can be described through the Source Monitoring Framework (SMF) (Johnson, Hashtroudi & Lindsay, 1993). The literature highlights the importance of discretion that although memories have been confabulated it does not mean that the maestro information was lost. Thus, representations of perception and those which have been constructed by the mind may both be stored in the memory and manifest under polar conditions (Johnson, 1981 Reyna & Brainerd, 1995). With regards to language orientation, the knowledge and use of more(prenominal) than one language has been found to be one of the conditions in which delusive memories ar manifested (Sahlin, Harding & Seamon, 2005). exploit has been made to elaborate on this condition throughout this introduction. Researchers have proposed that false memories can cross language boundaries through the findings that ideaual representations of countersignatures provide an appropriate climate for false memories to appear in as opposed to specific lexical representations, where errors in memory were found to be significantly decreased (Sahlin, Harding & Seamon, 2005). These findings were tested by the notion that bilingual witnesses are equally as tractable to post event misinformation, whether it was presented in the same language as the actual event, or in another language that they chatter (Shaw, Garcia & Robles, 1997). The fact that language context makes no difference to post event misinformation provides sufficient grounds to inquire whether at that place are any differences at all in false memory recant between monolinguals and bilinguals. supposition indicates that bilinguals process information in a different government agency to monolinguals (Bialystok, Craik & Luk, 2012 Martin et al., 2012 Wang et al., 2011). The reason for this has been suggested as the notion that bilinguals tip to encode experiences and information in two languages rather than one (Grosjean, 1989). Where monolinguals utilise only one language in their minds during the encoding process, bilinguals utilise two, which has been found to have a sig nificant effect on memory performance when comparing bilingual and monolingual individuals (Ardila, 2014 Paivio, 2014). For example, bilingual individuals have been found to combine languages, resulting in a more enhanced cognitive performance in designation and visit of information than monolinguals (Francis, 1999). These findings provide and grounds to investigate the extent to which cognitive processes are at an advantage through bilingualism, and whether bilingualism could result in more false memories than monoligualism. Thus, with reference to the difference that language context could make to ones memory performance, it has been suggested that language may be used as a retrieval cue when eliciting memories from past experiences (Altarriba, 2003), suggesting that the original language context plays a significant role in the quality and nature of the memories retrieved (Godden & Baddeley, 1975). Consequently, this provides implication for win research as it lays a foundatio n for the speculation that bilingual individuals may be more susceptible to false memory, signifying a disadvantage as opposed to the enhanced cognitive processing that was suggested by the findings of Francis (1999). It may be suggested that the reason for the differences between monolingual and bilingual recall is due to the functioning of the phonological loop, a short term memory system for auditory information acting as the minds voice when processing information (Lindberg, 2005). The phonological loop plays a crucial role in eruditeness new speech communication in native and foreign languages (Salame & Baddeley, 1986). Researchers propose that acquisition of a new language expands the phonological loop allowing the individual to access a larger store of sounds and words (Salame & Baddeley, 1986). However, the effects that the cognitive enhancement has on the Long Term holding and the overall functioning of the Working Memory has been suggested to issue bilinguals at a disa dvantage, as the literature also suggests that processing words in a abet language consumes additional works memory resources in bilinguals (Service et al, 2002). This suggests that overall memory performance in bilinguals is trim be driveway of increased concentration on the textual definition and similitudeship between words (Service et al, 2002). Therefore, it is appropriate to question if false memories could be a result of reduced working memory performance, or whether they are a result of enhanced cognitive processing in bilingual individuals. In line of battle to understand the concept of working memory of bilinguals better in its relation to false memory, it is relevant to consider how false memories are created. Memories can include errors at the time of encoding becoming distorted (Roediger & McDermott, 1995). agree to some, false memories may also be created by external implication (Loftus, 1997 Zhu et al, 2010), such as when someone suggests that an event had issu e forthred in early childhood, and this information is retained by the individual as a memory, thus forming the basis of a false memory. This is named the misinformation effect phenomenon, as the misleading information, which is given to the individual, causes them to create false recollections of an event (Loftus, 1979 Loftus, and Hoffman, 1989 Tousignant, Hall, & Loftus, 1986). This phenomenon has also been collectionn to excrete in a number of individuals from various backgrounds (Frenda, Nichols, and Loftus, 2012), including those who have been asked to recall events as eyewitnesses (Loftus, 2013 Patihis et al, 2013 Shaw, Garcia, & Robles, 1997). Consequently, the misinformation effect phenomenon may tornado one explanation for the creation of false memories in the working memory. With regards to language orientation, experiments provide evidence to show that false memories may also be created because of the events that bilingual individuals recall in association with the wor ds that they have been shown during experiments (Deese, 1959). This idea is pertinent to the creation of false memories in bilingual individuals, therefore, to further investigate this phenomenon, the Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm was used as a methodology in which false memories were studied (Deese, 1959 Roediger, & McDermott, 1995). In a number of studies, participants were asked to recall a list of words, associated with one word in particular. For example, sadness may be associated with tears, chafe, grief, unhappiness, sorrow, gloom, despondency, desolation, or melancholy. The word sadness is not shown in any of the lists, but the associated words are. The participants are then asked to recall as many words as they can remember. Results of the studies show false memories to be evident in the participants (Cann, McRae & Katz, 2011 Gallo, 2010 Koriat, Pansky & Goldsmith, 2011). This suggests that words hold semantic power and have the ability to deflect memories by fi lling in any gaps, thus providing support for the notion that false memories are influenced by language. However, these studies may be criticised through the suggestion that individual differences plays a significant role in working memory, and therefore must be considered when examine working memory (Daneman & Carpenter, 1980). For these language and memory studies in particular, it should be considered that individual differences may play a major role in the way that an individual interprets words such as tears, pain, grief sorrow and so on, as these words may hold different connotations for individuals from different heathenish backgrounds.With reference to false memory as a result of bilingualism, studies indicate that language was tested in separate DRM experiments but not manipulated as a factor. It was seen that each language had a different inflexible of lists in the experiments. As a consequence, the comparison of words across languages must be considered with the utmost caution, as lists presented in one language may trigger a higher proportion of false recall that those presented in another language (Marmolejo, 2009). This suggests that bilingual individuals are more tend to false memories that monolinguals. Therefore, it is essential that when DRM methods are used, these factors be considered as they may affect the results of the experiments. In conjunction, the findings from other studies have shown that where the second language progression of the bilingual participants is mixed, higher number of false recalls are evident (Anastasi et al., 2005 Holliday, Kang and Lee, 2003 Marmolejo et al., 2009 Miyaji-Kawasaki, Inoue, & Yama, 2003). Hence, these findings must also be taken into consideration, as they may affect the outcomes of experiments which seek to examine the language recall or recognition of bilingual individuals and the incidence of false memories. Other research shows that false memories in bilinguals may be created due to the sys tem Theory (Bartlett, 1932), whereby different schemas in the mind represent different languages. These schemas store the information necessary so that bilingual individuals are able to use various languages. When new information is attained, errors come out when the old information becomes mixed with this (Bransford and Franks, 1971). This process therefore leads to a distortion in the memory, which may be used to relieve wherefore false memory recalls are observed when bilinguals are tested using the DRM method. From this knowledge we can expect that the results of the present study will show that bilinguals have a higher tendency towards false memories. Comparatively, Craik and Lockhart (1972) stated that false memory recalls occur due to the trains at which language is processed by the mind. According to the Levels of Processing theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972), when memories are processed, it is undertaken on different levels. If the levels of processing are shallow, the mem ories that are created are weaker than those which are formulated on a deeper level (Gallo, 2013). Therefore, if language memories are formulated on a deeper level than new memories, they will be stronger than new ones. However, a number of studies have demonstrated that this is not discriminatory as this leads to higher levels of false memory recall (Anderson, 2013 Hunt, Smith & Dunlap, 2011 Thapar & Mcdermott, 2001 Toglia, Neuschatz & Goodwin, 1999). This may be another way through which false memories may be created in the working memory of bilinguals. Yet, in opposition, it may be suggested that this is not only trammel to bilinguals, and may also occur in monolinguals. However, the speculations for the present study do suggest that false memory will be an occurrence that is more prevalent among bilinguals, not limited to bilinguals.. Others have stated that the reasons for false recall may be found in the way in which sematic representations are strongly linked to language (C ann, McRae & Katz, 2011 Wakeford et al., 2009). Each language has a direct link to representations, thus, when these are presented under experimental conditions, errors are found. When both language memories are being accessed by the participants in DRM experiments (Gallo, 2010), this may cause confusion in their memory. As a result, this could lead to some memories being triggered at the same time, which in make causes false recalls or the creation of false memories. This explanation of why false memory recalls may occur in bilingual individuals is often referred to as the spreading activation theory (Gallo, 2013) and is with reference to the activation of different semantic networks, which are used to access language memories of bilingual individuals. As the semantic network is activated, its bodily function spreads out across the brain so that the language related memories might be accessed and recalled. In relation to this, another notion named fuzzy trace theory has also bee n proposed to explain false memory recalls (Toglia et al. 1999).According to LaTour, LaTour, and Brainerd, (2014), false memories are seen as a result of deficient processing. However, recent psychological research has shown that elaboration and inferences can result in smart false memories. These smart false memories are explained by fuzzy-trace theory (FTT), which assumes that they understand from comprehension of the meaning of experience. FTT predicts that smart false memories should be positively correlated with measured levels of Need for Cognition. (LaTour, LaTour & Brainerd, 2014) Thus, as information is processed and encoded in two different languages the representations, speech and main points of these memories are formed simultaneously in conjunction with each other (Graves & Altarriba, 2014 Reyna & Brainerd, 1995 Reyna & Kiernan, 1994). In accord, the main points of these memories may become related to other familiar representations (Brainerd & Reyna, 2002) so false mem ories are created as these memories are recalled because they were never actually created in the inaugural instance. For this reason, false memory recall is higher when second languages are learnt as they are often learnt through accessing memories associated with native languages, which have their own schematic representations in the bilingual individuals memory (Toglia et al., 1999). From this knowledge, it can be expected that the results of the present study will show that bilingual individuals are more inclined to accumulate false memories. On reflection of the evidence at hand, it the several ways in which false memory recalls are created may begin to be ascertained. Errors in processing may be the cause (Anderson, 2013 Hunt, Smith & Dunlap, 2011 Thapar & Mcdermott, 2001 Toglia, Neuschatz & Goodwin, 1999), receiving inaccurate or false information (Loftus, 1979 Loftus & Hoffman, 1989 Tousignant, Hall & Loftus, 1986) or differing levels of language proficiency (Anastasi et al. , 2005 Holliday, Kang & Lee, 2003 Marmolejo et al., 2009 Miyaji-Kawasaki, Inoue & Yama, 2003) may be held accountable. A single explanation which determines how or why false memory phenomena may occur more in bilinguals than in monolinguals does not exist. Therefore, it is important that a number of theories are considered when investigating why false memory recall occurs in bilingual individuals. It is also essential that these notions be examined further, in order for a deeper insight into why false recalls are more prevalent in some situations than in others. This could help to establish which of the notions that have been discussed are more accurate. In turn, this would enable a deeper understanding of how individuals that speak two languages utilise their memories. The present study sought to examine and ascertain how bilingualism influences false memory recall in individuals using the Greek and English languages. The research question at hand asked To what extent does bilingua lism influence the veridical and false memory recalls of individuals when they are asked to remember conglomerate alphabetic scriptsTherefore, the aim of the present research study was to test the effects of bilingualism on veridical and false memory recall when individuals were asked to recall dissimilar alphabetic scripts. In order to test this, the hypotheses were devised in accord to the literature covered suggested that bilingualist individuals will incorrectly recall words in Greek or English as they create false memoriesBilingual individuals will falsely recall different languages in different proportions, depending upon whether it is their native or non-native language sour recalls will occur in non-native languages more than native languages and false recognition will occur more in non-native languages than native languages. These hypotheses were tested through the execution of several experiments. The methods that were employed are detailed in the next section of this re port.ReferencesAltarriba, J. (2003). Does carin?o equal likingA theoretical approach to conceptual non-equivalence between languages. International Journal of Bilingualism, 7, 305-322. Altarriba, J., & Isurin, L. (Eds.). (2012). Memory, language, and bilingualism Theoretical and applied approaches. 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